Kurds - A People Without A State Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers

Kurds - A People Without A State Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers Kurds - A People Without a State Introduction Of all the ethnic groups in the world, the Kurds are one of the largest that has no state to call their own. According to historian William Westermann, "The Kurds can present a better claim to race purity...than any people which now inhabits Europe." (Bonner, p. 63, 1992) Over the past hundred years, the desire for an independent Kurdish state has created conflicts mainly with the Turkish and Iraqi populations in the areas where most of the Kurds live. This conflict has important geographical implications as well. The history of the Kurdish nation, the causes for these conflicts, and an analysis of the situation will be discussed in this paper. History of the Kurds The Kurds are a Sunni Muslim people living primarily in Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. The 25 million Kurds have a distinct culture that is not at all like their Turkish, Persian, and Arabic neighbors (Hitchens, p. 36, 1992). It is this cultural difference between the groups that automatically creates the potential for conflict. Of the 25 million Kurds, approximately 10 million live in Turkey, four million in Iraq, five million in Iran, and a million in Syria, with the rest scattered throughout the rest of the world (Bonner, p. 46, 1992). The Kurds also have had a long history of conflict with these other ethnic groups in the Middle East, which we will now look at. The history of Kurds in the area actually began during ancient times. However, the desire for a Kurdish homeland did not begin until the early 1900?s, around the time of World War I. In his Fourteen Points, President Woodrow Wilson promised the Kurds a sovereign state (Hitchens, p. 54, 1992). The formation of a Kurdish state was supposed to have been accomplished through the Treaty of Sevres in 1920 which said that the Kurds could have an independent state if they wanted one (Bonner, p. 46, 1992). With the formation of Turkey in 1923, Kemal Ataturk, the new Turkish President, threw out the treaty and denied the Kurds their own state. This was the beginning of the Turkish-Kurdish conflict. At about this same time, the Kurds attempted to establish a semi-independent state, and actually succeeded in forming the Kingdom of Kurdiez, which lasted from 1922-1924; later, in 1946, some of the Kurds established the Mahabad Republic, which lasted for only one year (Prince, p. 17, 1993). In 1924, Turkey even passed a law banning the use of the Kurdish language in public places. Another group of people to consider is the Kurds living in Iraq. Major conflict between the Kurds and Iraqis did not really begin until 1961, when a war broke out that lasted until 1970. Around this time, Saddam Hussein came to power in Iraq. In 1975, Hussein adopted a policy of eradicating the Kurds from his country. Over the next fifteen years, the Iraqi army bombed Kurdish villages, and poisoned the Kurds with cyanide and mustard gas (Hitchens, p. 46, 1992). It is estimated that during the 1980?s, Iraqis destroyed some 5000 Kurdish villages (Prince, p. 22, 1993). From this point, we move into the recent history and current state of these conflicts between the Kurds and the Turks, and the Kurds against the Iraqis. Causes for Conflict The reasons for these conflicts have great relevance to geography. The areas of geography relating to these specific conflicts are a historical claim to territory on the part of the Kurds, cultural geography, economic geography, and political geography. These four areas of geography can best explain the reasons for these Kurdish conflicts. First, the Kurds have a valid historical claim to territory. They have lived in the area for over 2000 years. For this reason, they desire the establishment of a Kurdish homeland. Iraqis and Turks, while living in the area for a long period of time, cannot make a historical claim to that same area. The conflict arises, however, because the area happens to lie within the borders of Iraq and Turkey. Even though the Kurds claim is valid, the Turks and Iraqis have chosen to ignore it and have tried to wipe out the Kurds. Second, and probably most important, is that this conflict involves cultural geography. The Kurds are ethnically and culturally

John Tylers Presidency and the Tyler Precedent

John Tylers Presidency and the Tyler Precedent John Tyler, the first vice president to finish the term of a president who had died in office, established a pattern in 1841 that would be followed for more than a century. The Constitution was not entirely clear about what would happen if a president died. And when William Henry Harrison died in the White House on April 4, 1841, some in the government believed his vice president would only become an acting president whose decisions would need the approval of Harrisons cabinet. Fast Facts: Tyler Precedent Named for John Tyler, the first vice president to become president upon the death of a president.Tyler was told by members of William Henrys Harrison that he was essentially only an acting president.Cabinet members insisted any decisions made by Tyler had to meet with their approval.Tyler stuck to his position, and the precedent he set remained in forced until the Constitution was amended in 1967. As funeral preparations began for President Harrison, the federal government was thrown into a crisis. On one side, members of Harrisons cabinet, who had no great trust in Tyler, did not want to see him exercise the full powers of the presidency. John Tyler, who possessed a fiery temper, forcefully disagreed. His stubborn assertion that he had rightfully inherited the full powers of the office became known as the Tyler Precedent. Not only did Tyler become the president, exercising all the powers of the office, but the precedent he set remained the blueprint for presidential succession until the Constitution was amended in 1967. Vice Presidency Considered Unimportant For the first five decades of the United States, the vice presidency was not considered a vitally important office. While the first two vice presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, were later elected president, they both found the vice presidency to be a frustrating position. In the controversial election of 1800, when Jefferson became president, Aaron Burr became vice president. Burr is the best-known vice president of the early 1800s, though he is mainly remembered for killing Alexander Hamilton in a duel while vice president. Some vice presidents took the jobs one defined duty, presiding over the Senate, quite seriously. Others were said to hardly care about it. Martin Van Buren’s vice president, Richard Mentor Johnson, had a very relaxed view of the job. He owned a tavern in his home state of Kentucky, and while vice president he took a lengthy leave of absence from Washington to go home and run his tavern. The man who followed Johnson in the office, John Tyler, became the first vice president to show how important the person in the job could become. Death of a President John Tyler had started his political career as a Jeffersonian Republican, serving in the Virginia legislature and as the state’s governor. He eventually was elected to the US Senate, and when he became an opponent of Andrew Jackson’s policies he resigned his Senate seat in 1836 and switched parties, becoming a Whig. Tyler was tapped as the running mate of Whig candidate William Henry Harrison in 1840. The legendary â€Å"Log Cabin and Hard Cider† campaign was fairly free of issues, and Tyler’s name was featured in the legendary campaign slogan, â€Å"Tippecanoe and Tyler Too!† Harrison was elected, and caught a cold at his inauguration while delivering a lengthy inaugural address in very bad weather. His illness developed into pneumonia, and died on April 4, 1841, a month after taking office. Vice president John Tyler, at home in Virginia and unaware of the seriousness of the presidents illness, was informed that the president had died. The Constitution Was Unclear Tyler returned to Washington, believing he was the president of the United States. But he was informed that the Constitution wasnt precisely clear about that. The relevant wording in the Constitution, in Article II, section 1, said: â€Å"In case of removal of the President from office, or of his death, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The question arose: what did the framers mean by the word â€Å"same†? Did it mean the presidency itself, or merely duties of the office? In other words, in the event of a president’s death, would the vice president become an acting president, and not actually the president? Back in Washington, Tyler found himself being referred to as â€Å"the vice president, acting as president.† Critics referred to him as â€Å"His Accidency.† Tyler, who was staying at a Washington hotel (there was no vice presidential residence until modern times), summoned Harrison’s cabinet. The cabinet informed Tyler that he was not actually the president, and any decisions he would make in office would have to be approved by them. John Tyler Held His Ground â€Å"I beg your pardon, gentlemen,† Tyler said. â€Å"I am sure I am very glad to have in my cabinet such able statesmen as you have proved yourselves to be, and I shall be pleased to avail myself of your counsel and advice, but I can never consent to being dictated to as to what I shall or shall not do. I, as president, will be responsible for my administration. I hope to have your cooperation in carrying out its measures. So long as you see fit to do this I shall be glad to have you with me. When you think otherwise, your resignations will be accepted.† Tyler thus claimed the full powers of the presidency. And the members of his cabinet backed down from their threat. A compromise suggested by Daniel Webster, the secretary of state, was that Tyler would take the oath of office, and would then be the president. After the oath was administered, on April 6, 1841, all the officers of the government accepted that Tyler was the president and possessed the full powers of the office. The taking of the oath thus came to be seen as the moment when a vice president becomes president. Tylers Rough Term In Office A headstrong individual, Tyler clashed mightily with the Congress and with his own cabinet, and his single term in office was very rocky. Tyler’s cabinet changed several times. And he became estranged from the Whigs and was essentially a president without a party. His one noteworthy achievement as president would have been the annexation of Texas, but the Senate, out of spite, delayed that until the next president, James K. Polk, could take credit for it. The Tyler Precedent Was Established The presidency of John Tyler was most significant for the way it began. By establishing the â€Å"Tyler Precedent,† he ensured that future vice presidents would not become acting presidents with restricted authority. It was under the Tyler Precedent that the following vice presidents became president: Millard Fillmore, following the death of Zachary Taylor in 1850Andrew Johnson, following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865Chester Alan Arthur, following the assassination of James Garfield in 1881Theodore Roosevelt, following the assassination of William McKinley in 1901Calvin Coolidge, following the death of Warren G. Harding in 1923Harry Truman, following the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1945Lyndon B. Johnson, following the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963 Tyler’s action was essentially affirmed, 126 years later, by the 25th Amendment, which was ratified in 1967. After serving his term in office, Tyler returned to Virginia. He remained politically active, and sought to forestall the Civil War by convening a controversial peace conference. When efforts to avoid war failed, he was elected to the Confederate congress, but died in January 1862, before he could take his seat.

What the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram Reveals about Stars

What the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram Reveals about Stars The stars are the most amazing physical engines in the universe. They radiate light and heat, and they create chemical elements in their cores. However, when observers look at them in the night sky, all they see are thousands of pinpoints of light. Some appear reddish, others yellow or white, or even blue. Those colors actually give clues to the temperatures and ages of the stars and where they are in their life-spans. Astronomers sort stars by their colors and temperatures, and the result is a famous graph called the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram. The H-R diagram is a chart that every astronomy student learns early on. Learning the Basic H-R Diagram Generally, the H-R diagram is a plot of  temperature vs. luminosity.  Think of luminosity as a way to define the brightness of an object. Temperature is something were all familiar with, generally as the heat   of an object. It helps define something called a stars spectral class, which astronomers also figure out by studying the wavelengths of light that come from the star. So, in a standard H-R diagram, spectral classes are labeled from hottest to coolest stars, with the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, M (and out to L, N, and R). Those classes also represent specific colors. In some H-R diagrams, the letters are arranged across the top line of the chart. Hot blue-white stars lie to the left and the cooler ones tend to be more toward the right side of the chart. The basic H-R diagram is labeled like the one shown here. The nearly diagonal line is called the main sequence. Nearly 90 percent of the stars in the universe exist along that line at one time in their lives. They do this while they are still fusing hydrogen to helium in their cores. Eventually, they run out of hydrogen and start to fuse helium.  Thats when they evolve to become giants and supergiants. On the chart, such advanced stars end up in the upper right corner. Stars like the Sun may take this path, and then ultimately shrink down to become white dwarfs, which appear in the lower left part of the chart. The Scientists and Science Behind the H-R Diagram The H-R diagram was developed in 1910 by the astronomers Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell. Both men were working with spectra of stars- that is, they were studying the light from stars by using spectrographs. Those instruments break down the light into its component wavelengths. The way the stellar wavelengths appear gives clues to the chemical elements in the star. They can also reveal information about its temperature, motion through space, and its magnetic field strength. By plotting the stars on the H-R diagram according to their temperatures, spectral classes, and luminosity, astronomers can classify stars into their different types. Today, there are different versions of the chart, depending on what specific characteristics astronomers want to chart. Each chart has a similar layout, with the brightest stars stretching up toward the top and veering off to the top left, and a few in the lower corners. The Language of the H-R Diagram The H-R diagram uses terms that are familiar to all astronomers, so its worth learning the language of the chart. Most observers have probably heard the term magnitude when applied to stars. Its a measure of a stars brightness. However, a star might appear bright for a couple of reasons:   it could be fairly close and thus look brighter than one farther away; and  it could be brighter because its hotter. For the H-R diagram, astronomers are mainly interested in a stars intrinsic brightness- that is, its brightness due to how hot it actually is. Thats why luminosity (mentioned earlier) is plotted along the y-axis. The more massive the star is, the more luminous it is. Thats why the hottest, brightest stars are plotted among the giants and supergiants in the H-R Diagram. Temperature and/or spectral class are, as mentioned above, derived by looking at the stars light very carefully. Hidden within its wavelengths are clues about the elements are in the star. Hydrogen is the most common element, as shown by the work of astronomer Cecelia Payne-Gaposchkin in the early 1900s. Hydrogen is fused to make helium in the core, so thats why astronomers see helium in a stars spectrum, too. The spectral class is very closely related to a stars temperature, which is why the brightest stars are in classes O and B. The coolest stars are in classes K and M. The very coolest objects are also dim and small, and even include brown dwarfs. One thing to keep in mind is that the H-R diagram can show us what stellar type a star can become, but it doesnt necessarily predict any changes in a star. Thats why we have astrophysics - which applies the laws of physics to the lives of the stars.

Toyota Motor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Toyota Motor - Essay Example As per the figures available, TMEM had complied with its market demands in 2000 by importing 76 % of the automobile spares from the Japanese plants and assembling them in its European plants. For the next fiscal year, the company reported operating losses of JPY 9.897 billions. The main problem TMEM faced here was simple but peculiar. As the euro was continuously trekking down, except for a few occasions, the revenues in shape of euros did not equal to the expenditure figures when converted into JPY. This cycle repeated all over for three years since the inception of TMEM pushing itself into losses. In addition to these conversion losses, the Japanese subsidiary had to contend with reduced margins on sales in an atmosphere abetted by cut throat competition from the native automobile manufacturers compounding its problems further. as it had to shell down more Euro currency at times towards pound sterling payments made to the UK plant which also supplied automobiles after assembling them. TMEM was caught in this vicious circle of currency conversion. The parent company played the role of an observer as it could not afford to make payments direct from its coffers on behalf of its subsidiary. However, in such a case, it could have been forced to lose more JPY reserves as the yen was playing low against the pound sterling. From this circle of operations, one thing is emerging clearly. The parent company had miscalculated the future of euro and expected an early forward march of its value in international markets. It also expected an early entry of the UK into the European Monetary Union (EMU). These two miscalculations had boomeranged on its operations in Europe leading to its ever increasing dependence on a weak euro. TMEM's problem has therefore been the result of a wrong analysis on the future of the newly cre ated euro currency. The following charts (Internet, graphs) show how the pound and yen values against the euro picked up from 1991 to 2001. In the beginning of 1991, the euro value was equal to 0. 712825 GBP. During the end of 2001, it equalled to 0.618756 GBP indicating gains for the pound.

Introduction to Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Introduction to Business Law - Essay Example Such contracts may get accepted since they provide immense benefits for the company. However, there may be certain circumstances under which such contracts may not be valid especially if the company does not reach into formal incorporation and the individual who has entered into such contracts (usually the promoter) would be held liable for the contract. The promoter is a person who would perform the various activities on behalf of the company even before it has been incorporated and in this way is an agent of the company. He would make several leases and contracts for the company such that the company can be incorporated are able to start off with its required functions that may arise from its objectives. Hence, supposing the company fails to get incorporated or if the shareholders do not accept the contracts, then the promoter may be personally held liable for all the pre-incorporated contracts (National Paralegal College 2003). The problem is actually more serious when the promote r is dealing with a party who may be interested in starting their own company and the promoter is an implied agent for a non-existing birth upcoming company. Hence, the position of the promoter is said to be ambiguous (Singh 2011). On the other hand, contracts are utmost needed for parties to legally be obliged into providing services or goods for a company to be formed. Contracts may be formed at different stages before pre-incorporation and without the presence of pre-incorporation contracts; the company would not be able to come into existence (University of London 2007 p. 43). In several instances, the legal question has been asked whether it is possible for a company to enter into a legally enforceable contract even before it comes into existence. Hence during the period of promotion of the company, the promoters may act as agents (make decisions on behalf of the company), and their role would end once they appoint the board of directors for the company. According to common law s, pre-incorporation contracts would not oblige a company. Once the promoter incorporates the company and appoints the board of directors, he has to hand over all matters to the board of directors, including the contracts that were made during pre-incorporation. The board of directors may accept these contracts or reject it which in turn would hold the promoter personally liable and not the company. Basically there are three types of contracts that may be entered into including pre-incorporation contracts, residuary contracts and provisional contracts (Expedite 2010 p. 10.7). In this paper, the stand of the promoter would be assessed with regards to the pre-incorporation contracts based on the statutory provisions (such as Section 36C of the Companies Act 1985, section 51 of the Companies Act 2006 & Article 7 of the First Directive of the EEC1) and common laws (such as Kelner vs. Baxter2 and Phonogram vs. Lane3). Since the liability on the promoter is very high, recommendations woul d be made that the promoters can implement in order to reduce or avoid liability with the pre-incorporation contracts. Common laws on pre-incorporation contracts One of the leading and initial cases regarding pre-incorporation contracts was Kelner vs. Baxter4 held before the Court of Common Pleas in England. In this case, there were a group of promoters who had created a contract with other parties for a company

Market Failure Resarch Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Market Failure Resarch - Research Paper Example It is the duty of the government to intervene and make sure that prices set are not discriminative. Government intervention in the price mechanism is largely based on aims of wanting to alter or change the allocation of resources and attain what they think to be an improvement social and economic welfare. Therefore, government intervenes in the economy with the aim of influencing the allocation of scarce resources on the market among competing consumers. The government formulates policy intervention with the aims to improve the performance of the economy, attain more equitable distribution of income, and correct market failure. There are various alternatives in which the government can use to intervene in market. For instance, government legislation and regulation whereby it passes laws that prohibit the sale of certain goods such as cigarettes to people under the age of eighteen. Furthermore, competition laws works against cartels that are used to price fixing. In addition, it can use fiscal policy intervention to alter the level of demand for distinct products in the market. Government intervention has always created inequity in society in that certain groups gain more than the others do. For instance, it is equitable for the government to provide educational maintenance allowances for 16-18 children from low-income households for them to stay in school after GCSE. It is vital to note that government intervention in the market will never be neutral. For instance, financial support offered by the State to specific producers rather than others creates unequal society in that there are winners and

The artist M.C. Escher Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The artist M.C. Escher - Research Paper Example In some of his works, he created polytypes that cannot be constructed in real world and can be explained using mathematics knowledge. His study on mathematics began with George Polya’s academic paper about plane symmetry groups. What he studied inspired him to study the concept of 17 wallpapers (Math Explorer Club, 2009). By using this mathematical concept, he manage to create a periodic tilings made up of 43 colored drawings of different types of symmetry. This was the point where he started developing mathematical approach to expressions of symmetry shapes in his drawings. He was being viewed as a research mathematician during that time when he documented his findings in a book wrote about asymmetry polygons. He researched about color based division and he came up with a system of classifying combinations of shape, color and symmetrical properties (Math Explorer Club, 2009). He also developed several interlocking figures that appear to be mathematically incorrect. With the use of black and white color, he manages to develop different dimensions to make the impossible mathematics look possible. He normally combines 2 and 3 dimensional images to a single print. In his works entitled ‘reptiles’ he drew pictures where reptiles come out of tessellation, move around, and go back into 2 dimensional forms. To create certain linear perspectives, he picked a point on the drawings such that all the lines in the work will converge together at one point. In this way, he used mathematics to develop a certain perception from the audience, without using any special mathematic tool. Escher circle limit III contains tessellations that he drew with a free hand and they are mathematically correct (Abrams, 1995). In 1956, he analyzed the concept of representing infinity on 2 dimensional planes. His wood carvings circle limit I-IV shows the infinity concept. In 1959, he explained further about infinity using his construction (Abrams, 1995). The